The Golden Temple

The Golden Temple
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I am often asked what my favorite sacred places are in the world, among the many hundreds I have visited. I could not choose one in particular, but included in the top ten would certainly be the Golden Temple. It is a place of both stupendous beauty and sublime peacefulness. Originally a small lake in the midst of a quiet forest, the site has been a meditation retreat for wandering mendicants and sages since deep antiquity. The Buddha is known to have spent time at this place in contemplation.Two thousand years after Buddha's time, another philosopher-saint came to live and meditate by the peaceful lake. This was Guru Nanak (1469-1539), the founder of the Sikh religion. After the passing away of Guru Nanak, his disciples continued to frequent the site; over the centuries it became the primary sacred shrine of the Sikhs. The lake was enlarged and structurally contained during the leadership of the fourth Sikh Guru (Ram Dass, 1574-1581), and during the leadership of the fifth Guru (Arjan, 1581-1606), the Hari Mandir, or Temple of God was built. From the early 1600s to the mid 1700s the sixth through tenth Sikh Gurus were constantly involved in defending both their religion and their temple against Moslem armies. On numerous occasions the temple was destroyed by the Moslems, and each time was rebuilt more beautifully by the Sikhs. From 1767 onwards, the Sikhs became strong enough militarily to repulse invaders. Peace returned to the Hari Mandir.

The temple's architecture draws on both Hindu and Moslem artistic styles yet represents a unique coevolution of the two. During the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780-1839), Hari Mandir was richly ornamented with marble sculptures, golden gilding, and large quantities of precious stones. Within the sanctuary, on a jewel-studded platform, lies the Adi Grantha, the sacred scripture of the Sikhs. This scripture is a collection of devotional poems, prayers, and hymns composed by the ten Sikh gurus and various Moslem and Hindu saints. Beginning early in the morning and lasting until long past sunset, these hymns are chanted to the exquisite accompaniment of flutes, drums, and stringed instruments. Echoing across the serene lake, this enchantingly beautiful music induces a delicate yet powerful state of trance in the pilgrims strolling leisurely around the marble concourse encircling the pool and temple. An underground spring feeds the sacred lake, and throughout the day and night pilgrims immerse themselves in the water, a symbolic cleansing of the soul rather than an actual bathing of the body. Next to the temple complex are enormous pilgrims' dormitories and dining halls where all persons, irrespective of race, religion, or gender, are lodged and fed for free.

Amritsar, the original name of first the ancient lake, then the temple complex, and still later the surrounding city, means "pool of ambrosial nectar." Looking deeply into the origins of this word amrit, we find that it indicates a drink of the gods, a rare and magical substance that catalyzes euphoric states of consciousness and spiritual enlightenment. With this word we have a very clear example of the spirit, power, or energetic character of a particular place becoming encoded as an ancient geographical place name. The myth is not just a fairy tale. It reveals itself as a coded metaphor if we have the knowledge to read the code: The waters of Amritsar flowing into the lake of the Hari Mandir were long ago - and remain today - a bringer of peacefulness.


Hari Mandir, Amritsar, India
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Sikh pilgrims at the Golden Temple, Amritsar, India
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Indian Temple Architecture

Introduction: Almost all Indian art has been religious, and almost all forms of artistic tradition have been deeply conservative. The Hindu temple developed over two thousand years and its architectural evolution took place within the boundaries of strict models derived solely from religious considerations. Therefore the architect was obliged to keep to the ancient basic proportions and rigid forms which remained unaltered over many centuries.

Even particular architectural elements and decorative details which had originated long before in early timber and thatch buildings persisted for centuries in one form or another throughout the era of stone construction even though the original purpose and context was lost. The horseshoe shaped window is a good example. Its origins lie in the caitya arch doorway first seen in the third century B.C. at the Lomas Rishi cave in the Barbar Hills. Later it was transformed into a dormer window known as a gavaksha; and eventually it became an element in a purely decorative pattern of interlaced forms seen time and time again on the towers of medieval temples. So, in its essence, Indian architecture is extremely conservative. Likewise, the simplicity of building techniques like post and beam and corbelled vaulting were preferred not necessarily because of lack of knowledge or skill, but because of religious necessity and tradition.

On the other hand, the architect and sculptor were allowed a great deal of freedom in the embellishment and decoration of the prescribed underlying principles and formulae. The result was an overwhelming wealth of architectural elements, sculptural forms and decorative exuberance that is so characteristic of Indian temple architecture and which has few parallels in the artistic expression of the entire world.

It is not surprising that the broad geographical, climatic, cultural, racial, historical and linguistic differences between the northern plains and the southern peninsula of India resulted, from early on, in distinct architectural styles. The Shastras, the ancient texts on architecture, classify temples into three different orders; the Nagara or ‘northern’ style, the Dravida or ‘southern ‘ style, and the Vesara or hybrid style which is seen in the Deccan between the other two. There are also dinsinct styles in peripheral areas such as Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan valleys. But by far the most numerous buildings are in either the Nagara or the Dravida styles and the earliest surviving structural temples can already be seen as falling into the broad classifications of either one or the other.

In the early years the most obvious difference between the two styles is the shape of their superstructures.

North Indian Temples

Jagadamba Temple - Khajuraho - Madhya Pradesh

The Nagara style which developed for the fifth century is characterized by a beehive shaped tower (called a shikhara, in northern terminology) made up of layer upon layer of architectural elements such as kapotas and gavaksas, all topped by a large round cushion-like element called an amalaka. The plan is based on a square but the walls are sometimes so broken up that the tower often gives the impression of being circular. Moreover, in later developments such as in the Chandella temples, the central shaft was surrounded by many smaller reproductions of itself, creating a spectacular visual effect resembling a fountain.

South Indian Temples

Brihadeeswarar Temple Thanjavur - Tamilnadu

From the seventh century the Dravida or southern style has a pyramid shaped tower consisting of progressively smaller storeys of small pavilions, a narrow throat, and a dome on the top called a shikhara (in southern terminology). The repeated storeys give a horizontal visual thrust to the southern style.

Less obvious differences between the two main temple types include the ground plan, the selection and positioning of stone carved deities on the outside walls and the interior, and the range of decorative elements that are sometimes so numerous as to almost obscure the underlying architecture.

Bearing in mind the vast areas of India dominated by the ‘northern’ style, i.e. from the Himalayas to the Deccan, it is to be expected that there would be distinct regional variations. For example all of the following are classified as Nagara - the simple Parasuramesvara temple at Bhubaneswar in Orissa, consisting only of a shrine and a hall; the temples at Khajuraho with their spectacular superstructures; and the exquisitely carved Surya temple at Modhera. On the other hand the ‘southern’ style, being restricted to a much smaller geographical area, was more consistent in its development and more predictable in its architectural features and overall appearance.

Temples of the Deccan

Chennakesava Temple, Belur - Karnataka

In the border areas between the two major styles, particularly in the modern states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, there was a good deal of stylistic overlap as well as several distinctive architectural features. A typical example is the Hoysala temple with its multiple shrines and remarkable ornate carving. In fact such features are sometimes so significant as to justify classifying distinct sub-regional groups.
The type of raw materials available from region to region naturally had a significant impact on construction techniques, carving possibilities and consequently the overall appearance of the temple. The soft soap-stone type material used by the Hoysala architects of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries allowed sculptors working in the tradition of ivory and sandalwood carving to produce the most intricate and ornate of all Indian styles. Hard crystalline rocks like granite typical of the area around Mamallapuram prevented detailed carving and resulted in the shallow reliefs associated with Pallava temples of the seventh and with centuries. In areas without stone, such as parts of Bengal, temples constructed of brick had quite different stylistic characteristics.

Royal patronage also had a very significant effect on the stylistic development of temples, and as we have already seen, regional styles are often identified by the dynasty that produced them. For example we speak of Pallava, Chola, Hoysala, Gupta, Chalukya and Chandella temples.

It might be assumed that temple styles would be different for the various Hindu cults. In fact, this was never the case in India. Even Jain temples such as those at Khajuraho were often built in almost identical styles to the Hindu temples.

From the eighth century onward with the development of ever more sophisticated rituals and festivals, the Hindu temple especially in the south started to expand and become more elaborate. There were more mandapas for various purposes such as dancing, assembly, eating, or, for example. To house Nandi, Shiva’s sacred mount; more subsidiary shrines and other structures; and more corridors and pillared halls such as the ‘thousand-pillared halls’.

Bhaktavatsalar Temple, Tirukkalunkundram - Tamilnadu

But the most significant visual difference between the later northern and southern styles are the gateways. In the north the shikhara remains the most prominent element of the temple and the gateway is usually modest. In the south enclosure walls were built around the whole complex and along these walls, ideally set along the east-west and north-south axes, elaborate and often magnificent gateways called gopurams led the devotees into the sacred courtyard. These gopurams led the devotees into the superstructures and capped with a barrel-shaped roofs were in fact to become the most striking feature of the south Indian temple. They become taller and taller, dwarfing the inner sanctum and its tower and dominating the whole temple site. From the Vijayanagara period (fourteenth to sixteenth century) onward, these highly embellished and often brightly painted structures become extremely numerous. The width of the storeys of pavilions and other architectural elements were carefully adjusted to create a concave contour which is a distinctive characteristic of the Dravida temples seen throughout the south, particularly in Tamil Nadu.

Sun Temples in India

Introduction: The Vedic scriptures of the Hindu religion refer to the sun as the store house of inexhaustible power and radiance. Ths sun god is referred to as Surya or Aditya. The Vedas are full of hymns describing the celestial body as the source and sustainer of all life on earth. The origin of the worship of the Sun in India is thus several centuries old.

References to sun worship are found in the puranas. The Ramayana speaks of Sage Agastya initiating Rama into sun worship through the Aditya Hridaya Mantra. The astronomer and astrologer Varahamirhira makes references to the intricacies of ceremonies connected with the installation of the icon of the Sun. It is also said that Iran was once a center of Solar worship and that some of the Magha priests of Iran had been brought to India to officiate in ceremonies. 

There are several temples enshrining the Sun God as the principal deity.  Several temples dedicated to Shiva, feature a small shrine for Surya the Sun God. In addition, it is believed that Surya, the Sun God has offered worship at several of the shrines in Tamilnadu; many of these shrines have been designed in such a way that the sun's rays illuminate the sanctum (of Shiva) on certain days of the year. Several of the South Indian Temple Tanks also bear the name Surya Theertham or Surya Pushkarini.

This article takes readers on a journey through seven  temples dedicated primarily to Surya,  Dakshinaarka Temple in the Gangetic Plains, Suryanaar Koyil in South India, Arasavilli and Konark on the East Coast of India, Modhera in Gujarat (Western India), Surya Pahar in North Eastern India and Unao in Central India.   It should be mentioned here that remains of an ancient Sun temple are found at Martanda near Srinagar in Kashmir. It is said to date back to the first century AD. Ruins of a sun temple which attracted thousands of visitors in the 7th century AD are found in Multan in Pakistan.

As with all other temples in India,  legends and beliefs are associated with each of the above temples. It is interesting to note that one of the beliefs shared by worshippers at these temples situated so far apart - is that visits to these temples followed by a dip in the sacred tanks associated with them would bring relief to believers ailing from blindness, leprosy and other skin diseases.

The Dakshinaarka temple at Gaya, Bihar
There is an ancient Sun temple at Gaya in the state of Bihar. Offerings to the ancestors are made at the Surya Kunda or the Dakshina Maanas tank in front of the temple. Sun worship apparently was very popular in the Magadha region which included Gaya. Numerous old images of the Sun God Aditya are found in the Gaya region and there are still quite a number of sun worshippers in Gaya. It is said that they may have descended from the fire worshippers of Central Asia. In fact, the granite image of Aditya (this particular image here is also referred to as Dakshinaarka) or the Sun God worshipped here is portrayed as wearing a jacket, a waist girdle and high boots in the Iranian tradition. Hundreds of people visit this temple on Sundays.

Sun worship in the Magadha region that encompassed Gaya has been mentioned in the Puranas and thus this temple is said to be of very ancient origin. The current structure dates back to the 13^th century, where the South Indian emperor Prataparudra of Warangal in Andhra Pradesh is said to have built it.

The Sun Temple at Gaya faces east and is located close to the famous Vishnupaada temple where a footprint of Vishnu is said to be enshrined. To the east of the temple is the tank Surya Kunda. The temple is a simple and plain one, with a dome over it. The comparatively larger sabha mandapa stands in front of the sanctum. Massive pillars line the mandapa where there are graceful stone sculptures of Shiva, Bhramaa, Vishnu, Surya and Durga.

There are two other notable Sun temples at Gaya, namely the Uttaraka temple near the Uttara Maanas tank and the Gayaditya temple on the river Falgu.

The Bhramanya Dev Temple at Unao in Madhya Pradesh
The Brahmanya Dev (Baramju) temple dedicated to the Sun is located at Unao near Jhansi in Madhya Pradesh. It is a well visited temple. Local belief is that worshippers find relief from ailments such as blindness and leprosy and other skin diseases. The stone image of the Sun God stands here on a brick platform covered with black plates. Twenty one triangles representing the 21 phases of the sun are engraved in the shrine.There is a protective brass cover for the image. Sunday is the special day of worship. This temple was patronized by the Peshwas and by the ruler of Datia, a nearby town.

Sun Temple at Surya Pahar in Assam 
This relatively modern Sun temple in the vicinity of the Surya Pahar Hill near Goalpara in Assam. This temple enshrines a circular stone tablet having 12 images of Aditya in a circle with an image of Kashyapa the father of Aditya in the center. Surya is said to be the son of Aditi and Kashyapa (Prajapati or the creator of beings). Each of the Adityas os one faced and two armed. According to the Puranas the Adityas are 12 in number. The text Kalika Purana mentions Surya mountain, the perpetual abode of the sun. Sun worship was present in early Assam. Surya Pahad is referred to as a virtual gallery of archeological remains. At the foot of the hill, covering a vast area there are found a good number of Siva lingams cut out of stone.In addition, Surya Pahar ruins contain many rock cut figures of artistic merit.

Suryanaar Temple near Kumbhakonam in Tamilnadu 
This ancient temple dedicated to the Sun is located near Kumbhakonam in Tamilnadu. Kumbhakonam and its surroundings abound in huge temples. This well known temple enshrines the Sun - Surya, Kasi Viswanatha and Visalakshi, and the other eight celestial bodies namely Chandran, Angarakan, Budhan, Brihaspati, Sukran, Saniswaran, Rahu and Ketu. An elaborate worship protocol is prescribed for pilgrims visiting here, starting with worship at the shrine of Ganesha, culminating in circumambulating the temple nine times. This temple built in the Dravidian style is over eight hundred years old and was patronized by the Imperial  Chola Kings. This temple is located in close proximity to Kanjanur, and Tirumangalakkudi housing 1200 year old temples to Shiva. Suryanaar Koyil has acquired a lot of popularity in recent times, and is one of the pivotal points in the Navagaraha Stala Tour organized by the Tamilnadu Tourist Development Corporation.

Suryanarayanaswamy temple at Arasavilli in Andhra Pradesh
This is a shrine of the Sun in a well preserved state. The temple dates back to the 7^th century and a Kalinga king is said to have constructed it. The image of worship is a 5 ft tall one of black granite holding lotus buds - flanked by Usha and Chhaya. Padmapani is the name of this Sun God - padma stands for wisdom usha and chhaya stand for eternity. This shrine is located near Srikakulam in Andhra Pradesh.

The Sun Temple at Modhera - Gujarat
This is a grand temple to the Sun God concieved and built in 1026.  As in the Sun Temple at Konark, this temple was so designed that the rays of the Sun would fall on the image of Surya at the time of the equnoxes. Whatever remains of this temple is grand; the shikharas are notaby absent but the Toranas in the frontal halls, and the intricate carvings in the exterior speak of the splendour of this shrine, which still is home to the Modhera dance festival featuring dance celebrities in performance in a natural setting. Ruins of the sun temple at Modhera in Gujarat show a lot of Magha influence. The walls of the temple have representations of the sun god wearing a peculiar West Asian belt and boots as in the Sun temple at Gaya. Mention must also be made of the huge tank in front of the temple with its multitude of images.

The Sun Temple at Konarak, Orissa 
The grandest and best known of all Sun temples in India is the Konark temple in Orissa. Thisdates back to the 13^th century and it represent the highest point in Orissan temple architecture. Konark is situated 20 miles to the north east of Puri. The word Konark means corner sun.

The black pagoda at Konarak is a grand and magnificient temple in the form of the suns charriot drawn by seven horses marking the 7 days of the week. The 24 huge wheels, magnificiently carved and decorated, mark the hours of the day. This temple was envisioned by the Ganga ruler Narasimha Deva and it was not fully completed. The main idol of the Sun God on which the suns rays fall in the morning is said to have been removed by some Portuguese navigators. The temple now comprises only of the sabhamandap and the natamandir. The main temple crumbled down many years ago.

Temples of the Himalayas

Temples of the Himalayas
Temples of the Himalayas

Since time immemorial, the mighty Himalayas have been revered as the abode of divinity. Hundreds of shrines dot the Himalayan foothills and the lofty ice clad peaks. Most of these shrines are very closely associated with the epics that form the backbone of Indian culture and ethos.

Haridwar - where the Ganges is revered. VisitHaridwar in the foothills of the Himalayas and experience the Aarti to the Ganges, when the entire riverside is lit up with the glow of hundreds of lamps. Rishikesh - Gateway to the Himalayas. Experience the might of the Ganges and the serene atmosphere ofRishikesh where all Himalayan pilgrimages begin. Badrinath - This ancient pilgrimage shrineBadrinath is revered all over India. Thousands throng to visit this temple which is open only for 6 months in a year. Kedarnath - the Northernmost of the Jyotirlingas. Kedarnath, nestled in the snow clad Himalayas is an ancient shrine rich in legend and tradition. It is accessible only on foot, six months in a year. Joshi Mutt: Jyotir Mutt, cradled in the Himalayas is one of the pilgrimage sites in the Tehri-Garhwal region and is home to the first mutt established by Aadi Sankaracharya. Devaprayag: The ancient pilgrimage center ofDevaprayag in the Himalayas is at the confluence of the rivers Alaknanda and the Bhagirathi. Kailash - The call of Tibet.Kailash has been revered as the Abode of Shiva. An arduous trek through the snow clad Himalayas takes piligrims to Manasarovar lake and to Mount Kailash. Amarnath - trek through Kashmir. Amarnath yatra - the pilgrimage to Amarnath in Kashmir takes place in the solar month of Leo, when the icy Shivalingam reaches its fullest size on the full moon day. A Himalayan Journey - Part I Experience the grandeur of Badrinath and its environs in the first of a three part series on travel through the Garhwal Himalayas. Salagraama - Nepal: TheSalagrama stones represent Vishnu and are found in plenty along the banks of the Gandaki river in Nepal, hailed as Salagrama, one of the Abodes of Vishnu. The Himalayan Temple Index: Browse through this pointer to several of the revered Himalayan shrines.

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Temples of Karnataka

Temples of Karnataka

Temples of Karnataka

The State of Karnataka is known for its multitude of tourist attractions and temples. Pilgrimage centerssuch as Mookambika and Udupi cradled in the western ghats offer a contrast to the ruins of the once grand Vijayanagar edifices at Hampi. The Hoysala temples marked with a profusion of intricate sculpture, and the ancient temples built by the Cholas, and the Chalukyan temples add to the variation in style across this state.

About the Temples of Karnataka: The Chalukyas, the Gangas, the Hoysalas, the Vijayanagar rulers and others contributed to diverse temple styles seen in Karnataka. Halebidu - a sculptors dream lived in stone. TheHoysaleswara temple in Halebidu is a masterpiece of Hoysala architecture and sculpture. Mookambika - Kollur: Rich in legend and tradition, this temple at Kollur is closely associated with Adi Sankaracharya. Udupi - is the seat of the Madhva school of philosophy. TheBalakrishna temple is one of the well visited pilgrimage centers of Karnataka. Gokarna: This ancient Shiva temple is revered pilgrimage center in Karnataka ; it has been revered by the hymns of the ancient Tamil saints. Sravanabelagola: The collossal monolithic image of Gomateswara or Bahubali is a familiar sight to those touring Karnataka. Nandi hills, located near Bangalore is home to theBhoganandeeswara and Yoganandeeswara temples. Belur Chennakesava Temple: Explore the rich sculptural wealth of this ancient Hoysala monumentbuilt by Vishnuvardhana of the 12th century CE. (article contributed by guest writer).) Somnathpura: The Kesava temple at Somnathapura located near Mysore is a standing illustration of Hoysala art. Belur Chennakesava Temple: Explore the history of this Hoysala monumentand experience its sculptural splendour. (article contributed by guest writer). Srirangapatna near Mysore - the historic capital of Tipu Sultan enshrines Ranganatha and Ranganayaki at the grandRanganatha temple. Melkote located near Mysore is home to the Tirunarayana temple and is a seat of the Sri Vaishnava tradition. Chamundeswari Templebuilt at Chamundi hills near Mysore enshrines Chamundeswari the tutelary deity of the Maharajahs of Mysore. Aihole near Bijapur is one of the centers of early Chalukyan art. The Durga temple is probably the best known of the temples here. Badami: The ancient town of Vatapi was a capital of the early Chalukyas. It is now known as Badami and it has several temples from the sixth and seventh centuries CE. Pattadakal, the third in the triad of early Chalukyan art centers near Bijapur has severallandmarks in the evolution of temple architecture. Mahakoota is another early Chalukyan temple art repository and is located near Badami. Talakkad near Mysore:This ancient temple atTalakkad near Mysore was patronized by the Cholas of the 12th century CE. The Virupaksha temple at Vijayanagar dating back to the period of Krishna Deva Raya, enshrines Virupakshaor Pampapati. The Vitthala temple at Vijayanagar (Hampi) is known for its halls with exquisite pillars, intricate friezes and the a stone chariot. Subrahmanya is one of the seven revered Mukti stalas of Karnataka and it enshrines Subrahmanya(Kartikeya). The Seven Mukti Stalas of Karnataka associated with Parasurama include some of the well visited pilgrimage shrinessuch as Kollur, Udupi & Gokarna. Dharmastala - a well visited pilgrimage center in Karnataka enshrinesManjunatha, in this stala of Dharma or righteousness & charity. Nanjangud: TheShrikanteshwara temple at Nanjangud near Mysore is a revered center of worship. The Kalyani Chalukyas of the 11th & 12th centuries developed a temple style characterized by ornate pillars and doorways. The district of Kolar known more for its gold fields is home to several templestracing their history through several royal dynasties that ruled the region.

Sringeri: TheVidyashankara temple is a magnificient temple built under the patronage of the Vijayanagar empire. Karnataka Temple Index: This index provides a pointer to the hundreds of temples that dot the state of Karnataka.

Tirupati

Significance: Tirupati/Tirumala is a pilgrimage center of great significance and is visited by hundreds of thousands of pilgrims throughout the year.Venkateswara, or Srinivasa or Balaji as the presiding deity Vishnu is known, is enshrined in this temple, located on a range of the Eastern Ghats, called the Seven Hills.It is an ancient temple and its glory has been sung by the saints of the yesteryears.

Said to be the richest temple in India, this temple is a vibrant cultural and philanthropic institution with a grand history spanning several centuries. It attracts pilgrims from all over the country and it is not unusual for pilgrims to stand in line for hours together to obtain a glimpse of the presiding deity for a few fleeting seconds.

TTD, or Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam manages the affairs of the temple, the well being of the pilgrims, the upkeep of the environs in and around the Tirumala hills and sponsors several undertakings that are religious, charitable, social and educational in nature.

References to Tiruvenkatam abound in early Tamil literature(Tolkappiam and Silappadikaram) . Explicit reference to the Lord of Tiruvenkatam is found in the works of the early Tamil Saint Poets Poigai Alwar, Bhuthathu Alwar and Pay Alwar as well as in the poems of the later Alwars. The great religious leader Ramanuja Acharya is said to have visited here in the 11th - 12th century AD.

References to Venkatachalam are also found in several of the Puranas. Tirumalai constitutes one of the 108 Sri Vaishnava Divya Desams - sacred shrines in the Sri Vaishnavite tradition.Krishna Deva Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire is said to have visited this temple 7 times. An image of his is also found in the temple. The Venkatesa Itihasa Mala and the Varaha Puranacontain several legends connected with Tirumalai.

Location: Tirupati is a town in the Chittoor district of the Southern portion of Andhra Pradesh and is at a convenient train journey away from Chennai (formerly Madras) in Tamilnadu. Tirumalai, on the last of the seven Hills, is home to this temple and is connected by a well maintained and picturesque mountain road constructed by the Tirumala Tirupati Devastanam.

Temples of Tamilnadu

Thousands of temples with lofty towers dot the skyline of the entire state of Tamilnadu. The Tamils have been the greatest of temple builders. Temples from the pre Christian era as well as those from the 20th century exist in this state, where the ancient rulers have made outstanding contributions to the growth of these monuments of great artistic value. The most ancient temples were built of brick and mortar. Upto about 700 CE temples were scooped out of rocks. The Pallava Kings (upto 900) were great builders of temples in stone. The Cholas (900-1250 AD) have a number of monuments to their credit. Mention must be made of the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjavur. The Cholas added many ornate mandpams or halls to temples and constructed large gopurams - towers. The Pandya Style (Upto 1350 AD) saw the emergence of huge towers, high wall enclosures and enormous towered gateways. The Vijayanagar Style (1350 - 1560 AD) is noted for the intricacy and beauty especially for the decorated monolithic pillars. The Naik style (1600 - 1750 AD) is noted for the addition of large prakarams (circumambulatory paths) and pillared halls. The above is a rather terse description of the Dravidian temple styles found in Tamilnadu. The age of a temple could be determined from the architectural features exhibitied by it, as well as from references to it in ancient literature. The Sangam period literature of the pre Christian era refers to some temples. The songs of the revered Saivite Saints (Nayanmars) and the Vaishnavite Alwar Saints that date back to the period 7th to the 9th century CE provide ample references to the temples of those days, and these are a valued source of reference in estimating the age of temples. In addition, stone inscriptions found in most temples throw a lot of light on the history , and on the patronage extended by various rulers.

World's 12 Fascinating Temples

Tiger’s Nest Monastery, perched precariously on the edge of a 3,000-feet-high cliff in Paro Valley, is one of the holiest places in Bhutan. Legend has it that Guru Rinpoche, the second Buddha, flew onto the cliff on the back of a tigress, and then meditated in a cave which now exists within the monastery walls.

The monastery, formally called Taktshang Goemba, was built in 1692 and reconstructed in 1998 after a fire. Now, the monastery is restricted to practicing Buddhists on religious retreats and is off-limits to ordinary tourists.

2. Wat Rong Khun, Chiang Rai, Thailand

Wat Rong Khun in Chiang Rai, Thailand is unlike any Buddhist temples in the world. The all-white, highly ornate structure gilded in mosaic mirrors that seem to shine magically, is done in a distinctly contemporary style. It is the brainchild of renowned Thai artist Chalermchai Kositpipat.

Actually, the temple is still under construction. Chalermchai expects it will take another 90 years to complete, making it the Buddhist temple equivalent of the Sagrada Familia church in Barcelona, Spain

3. Prambanan, Central Java, Indonesia

Prambanan is a Hindu temple in Central Java, Indonesia. The temple was built in 850 CE, and is composed of 8 main shrines and 250 surrounding smaller ones.

Nearly all the walls of the temple are covered in exquisite bas relief carvings, which narrate stories of Vishnu’s incarnations, adventures of Hanuman the Monkey King, the Ramayana epic and other legends.

Though not the biggest temple in Indonesia (Borobudur is larger - see below), Prambanan makes up in beauty and grace for what it lacks in size.

4. Shwedagon Paya, Myanmar

No one knows exactly when the Shwedagon Paya (or Pagoda) in Myanmar was built - legend has it that it is 2,500 years old though archaeologists estimate that it was built between the 6th and 10th century.

Now, when people say "golden temple" they usually mean that the structure is golden in color. But when it comes to the Shwedagon Pagoda, golden literally means covered in gold! In the 15th century, a queen of the Mon people donated her weight in gold to the temple. This tradition continues until today, where pilgrims often save for years to buy small packets of gold leafs to stick to the temple walls.

As if all that gold wasn’t enough, the spire of the stupa or dome is covered with over 5,000 diamonds and 2,000 rubies (there’s even a 76 carat diamond!). And, the temple housed one of the holiest relics in Buddhism: eight strands of Buddha’s hair.

5. Temple of Heaven, Beijing

The Temple of Heaven is a Taoist temple in Beijing, the capital of China. The temple was constructed in 14th century by Emperor Yongle of the Ming Dynasty (who also built the Forbidden City) as his personal temple, where he would pray for good harvest and to atone for the sins of his people.

The Temple’s architecture is quite interesting: everything in the temple, which represents Heaven, is circular whereas the ground levels, which represent the Earth, are square.

6. Chion-in Temple, Japan

Chion-in Temple was built in 1234 CE to honor the founder of Jodo (Pure Land) Buddhism, a priest named Honen, who fasted to death in the very spot. At one point in time, the complex had 21 buildings but due to earthquakes and fire, the oldest surviving building is from the 17th century.

Visitors to the Chion-in Temple must first pass through the largest gate in Japan: the two-story San-mon Gate. The temple bell is also a record setter: it weighs 74 tons and needs 17 monks to ring it during the New Year celebrations.

Another interesting feature of the Chion-in Temple is the "singing" floor of the Assembly Hall. Called a uguisu-bari or nightingale floor, the wooden planks were designed to creak at every footstep to alert the monks of intruders!

7. Borobudur, Java, Indonesia

In the 19th century, Dutch occupiers of Indonesia found a massive ancient ruin deep in the jungles of Java. What they discovered was the complex of Borobudur, a gigantic structure built with nearly 2 million cubic feet (55,000 m³) of stones. The temple has nearly 2,700 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues.

Until today, no one knows for sure when and why it was built, nor the reason for its complete abandonment hundreds of years ago. Some scholars believe that Borobudur is actually a giant textbook of Buddhism, as its bas reliefs tell the story of the life of Buddha and the principles of his teachings. To "read," a pilgrim must make his way through nine platforms and walk a distance of over 2 miles.

8. Harmandir Sahib, Golden Temple, Punjab, India

The Harmandir Sahib (meaning The Abode of God) or simply the Golden Temple in Punjab, India is the most sacred shrine of Sikhism. For the Sikhs, the Golden Temple symbolizes infinite freedom and spiritual independence.

The site of the Temple began with a small lake that was so peaceful that even Buddha came there to meditate. Thousands of years later, Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism also lived and meditate by the lake.

Construction of the Golden Temple began in the 1500s, when the fourth Guru of Sikhism enlarged the lake that became Amritsar or Pool of the Nectar of Immortality, around which the temple and the city grew. The Temple itself is decorated with marble sculptures, gilded in gold, and covered in precious stones.

9. Temple of Srirangam, Tiruchirapalli, India

The Temple of Srirangam (Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple), in the Indian city of Tiruchirapalli (or Trichy), is the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world (Ankor Wat is the largest of all temple, but it is currently non-functioning as a temple - see below).

The temple is dedicated to Vishnu, one of three Gods in Hinduism. Legend has it that a long time ago, a sage rested and put down a statue of Vishnu reclining on a great serpent. When he was ready to resume his journey, he discovered that the statue couldn’t be moved, so a small temple was built over it. Over centuries, the temple "grew" as larger ones were built over the existing buildings.

The temple complex is massive: it encompasses an area of over 150 acres (63 hectares) with seven concentric walls, the outermost being about 2.5 miles (4 kilometers) long! The walls demarcate enclosures within enclosures, each more sacred than the next, with the inner-most enclosure is forbidden to non-Hindus.

The Temple of Srirangam is famous for its gopurams or entrances beneath colorful pyramids. The temple has 21 gopurams total, with the largest one having 15 stories and is nearly 200 feet (60 m) tall.

10. Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom, Bayon, Cambodia

Angkor Wat was built in the early 12th century in what is now Cambodia. The world famous temple was first a Hindu one, dedicated to Vishnu. In the 14th or 15th century, as Buddhism swept across Asia, it became a Buddhist temple.

The Western world’s got a glimpse of Angkor Wat when a 16th century Portuguese monk visited the temple and eloquently described it as "of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of." His words still rang true today.

Tourists visiting Angkor Wat usually also visit the nearby ruins of Angkor Thom and Bayon, two fantastic temples that serve as the ancient capital of Khmer empire.

11. Potala Palace, Jokhang Temple, Tibet

Potala Palace, built on top of the Red Mountain in Lhasa, Tibet, China was built by the first emperor of Tibet in 637 CE. The current palace was re-constructed in the mid-1600s by the fifth Dalai Lama.

The Palace consists of two main buildings, the Potrang Karpo (White Palace) and Portrang Marpo (Red Palace). It was the chief home of the fourteenth and current Dalai Lama until he was forced to flee to India when China invaded Tibet in 1959. It is now a state museum.

Jokhan Temple is the spiritual center of Lhasa and is considered the most important and sacred temple in Tibet. The temple was built in 642 CE and has since housed the single most venerated object in Tibetan Buddhism: a statue of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism.

The city of Lhasa has three concentric paths that pilgrims use to walk to Jokhang Temple. Many actually prostrate themselves along these routes in order to gain spiritual merit!

12. Varanasi, India

Varanasi in India is not a temple, but ais ctually a famous Hindu holy city, located at the banks of the Ganges River.

It is, however, often called the "City of Temples," where almost every road crossing has a nearby temple.

A center of pilgrimage (as many as a million pilgrims visit Varanasi each year), the city has links to Buddhism and Jainism as well.